Hume's Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals › The Anatomy of Virtue

Having established that morality rests on sentiment, Hume turns to a systematic analysis of which qualities we actually approve of and why. His method is empirical rather than a priori. Instead of deducing what virtue must be from abstract principles, he examines what qualities humans actually praise and blame. The pattern he discovers is elegant. We approve of qualities that are either useful or agreeable, either to the person who possesses them or to others. This gives us four categories of virtue: _Qualities useful to others_ include justice, fidelity, honesty, and benevolence. We approve of these because they benefit society. A world of liars and cheats would be miserable for everyone. We have evolved and been socialized to feel approval toward traits that make social life possible. _Qualities useful to the possessor_ include prudence, industry, frugality, and enterprise. We approve of these because they benefit the individual who has them. Even when others don't directly gain, we feel a sympathetic pleasure at qualities that serve a person's own good. _Qualities agreeable to others_ include politeness, wit, modesty, and good humor. These don't produce utility in any narrow sense; they simply make social interaction pleasant. We enjoy being around people who have them and feel approval accordingly. _Qualities agreeable to the possessor_ include cheerfulness, self-esteem, and tranquility of mind. These make life enjoyable for the person who has them. Through sympathy, we share in that enjoyment and approve of the qualities that produce it. This framework explains why different societies praise somewhat different virtues. The useful qualities will vary depending on circumstances. A warrior society will prize courage and ferocity; a commercial society will prize honesty and punctuality. But the underlying principle remains constant: we approve of what is useful or agreeable.