Software Engineering

Insights on software development, engineering practices, architecture patterns, and the craft of building robust, scalable systems.

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Michael Brenndoerfer
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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Continuous Post-Training

Sep 11, 2025·8 min read

Covers continuous post-training, including parameter-efficient fine-tuning with LoRA, catastrophic forgetting prevention, incremental model updates.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

DBSCAN: Density-Based Clustering for Arbitrary Shapes

Sep 10, 2025·58 min read

Covers DBSCAN (Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise), the algorithm.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

GPT-4o: Unified Multimodal AI

Sep 9, 2025·13 min read

Covers GPT-4o, including unified multimodal architecture, real-time processing, unified tokenization, advanced attention mechanisms, memory mechanisms.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

DeepSeek R1: Architectural Innovation in Reasoning Models

Sep 7, 2025·7 min read

DeepSeek R1 uses reinforcement learning and distilled reasoning models for mathematical and coding tasks. Covers its training design, results, and limitations.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Agentic AI Systems: Autonomous Agents

Sep 5, 2025·14 min read

Covers agentic AI systems introduced in 2024. Explains how AI systems evolved from reactive tools to autonomous agents capable of planning.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

AI Co-Scientists for Autonomous Research

Sep 3, 2025·6 min read

AI co-scientist systems generate hypotheses, plan experiments, and synthesize evidence. Covers autonomous research workflows, evaluation, and human oversight.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

Minimum Cost Flow for Slotting and Resource Allocation

Sep 1, 2025·72 min read

Covers minimum cost flow optimization for slotting problems, including network flow theory, mathematical formulation.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

V-JEPA 2: Vision-Based World Modeling for Embodied AI

Sep 1, 2025·11 min read

Covers V-JEPA 2, including vision-based world modeling, joint embedding predictive architecture, visual prediction, embodied AI.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine Learning

Word Embeddings: Word2Vec, GloVe and Vector Semantics

Aug 30, 2025·40 min read

Covers word embeddings covering Word2Vec skip-gram, GloVe matrix factorization, negative sampling.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

MILP for Factory Optimization and Production Planning

Aug 29, 2025·67 min read

Covers Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) for factory optimization, covering mathematical foundations, constraint modeling, branch-and-bound algorithms.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Specialized LLMs for Low-Resource Languages: AI Equity

Aug 28, 2025·15 min read

Covers specialized large language models for low-resource languages, including synthetic data generation, cross-lingual transfer learning.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

Scaling Up without Breaking the Bank: AI Agent Performance

Aug 28, 2025·17 min read

Scale AI agents from single users to thousands while maintaining performance and controlling costs. Topics include horizontal scaling, load balancing.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

CP-SAT Rostering: Constraint Programming for Workforce

Aug 26, 2025·56 min read

Covers CP-SAT rostering using Google OR-Tools to solve complex workforce scheduling problems with binary decision variables, coverage constraints.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Constitutional AI: Alignment Through Self-Critique

Aug 26, 2025·20 min read

Covers Constitutional AI, including principle-based alignment, self-critique training, reinforcement learning from AI feedback (RLAIF), scalability advantages.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningData, Analytics & AISoftware Engineering

Managing and Reducing AI Agent Costs

Aug 26, 2025·22 min read

Reduce AI agent API costs without sacrificing capability. Topics include model selection, caching, batching, prompt optimization.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

Speeding Up AI Agents

Aug 24, 2025·14 min read

Covers practical techniques to make AI agents respond faster, including model selection strategies, response caching, streaming, parallel execution.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

Maintenance and Updates: Keeping Your AI Agent Running

Aug 22, 2025·24 min read

Maintain and update AI agents safely, manage costs, respond to user feedback, and keep your system healthy over months and years of operation.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

N-BEATS for Interpretable Time Series Forecasting

Aug 20, 2025·51 min read

Covers N-BEATS, an interpretable deep learning architecture for time series forecasting.

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AI Agent HandbookSoftware EngineeringMachine Learning

Monitoring and Reliability

Aug 20, 2025·18 min read

Monitor your deployed AI agent's health, handle errors gracefully, and build reliability through health checks, metrics tracking, error handling.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

GPT-4: Multimodal LLMs Reach Human-Level Performance

Aug 18, 2025·8 min read

Covers GPT-4, including multimodal capabilities, improved reasoning abilities, enhanced safety and alignment, human-level performance on standardized tests.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware EngineeringData, Analytics & AI

Deploying Your AI Agent

Aug 18, 2025·11 min read

Deploy your AI agent from a local script to a production service. Topics include packaging, cloud deployment, APIs, and making your agent accessible to users.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

HDBSCAN Clustering: Hierarchical Density-Based Clustering

Aug 17, 2025·37 min read

Covers HDBSCAN clustering algorithm covering density-based clustering, automatic cluster selection, noise detection.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

BIG-bench and MMLU: Evaluation Benchmarks for LLMs

Aug 16, 2025·17 min read

Covers BIG-bench (Beyond the Imitation Game Benchmark) and MMLU (Massive Multitask Language Understanding), the widely used evaluation benchmarks.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

Hierarchical Clustering: Dendrograms, Linkage Criteria

Aug 14, 2025·51 min read

Covers hierarchical clustering, including dendrograms, linkage criteria (single, complete, average, Ward), and scikit-learn implementation.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Function Calling and Tool Use

Aug 14, 2025·16 min read

Covers function calling capabilities in language models from 2023, including structured outputs, tool interaction, API integration.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

AI Agent Permissions: Least Privilege and Sandboxing

Aug 14, 2025·16 min read

Control AI agent actions with least-privilege permissions, confirmation steps, and sandboxing. Covers tool allowlists, sensitive operations, and safe defaults.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

QLoRA: Efficient Fine-Tuning of Quantized Language Models

Aug 12, 2025·13 min read

QLoRA combines 4-bit quantization with low-rank adapters to fine-tune large language models on limited hardware while preserving model quality.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningData, Analytics & AISoftware Engineering

Content Safety and Moderation

Aug 12, 2025·20 min read

Implement content safety and moderation in AI agents, including system-level instructions, output filtering, pattern blocking, graceful refusals.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

SARIMA: Seasonal Time Series Forecasting with Implementation

Aug 11, 2025·35 min read

Covers SARIMA (Seasonal AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average) for forecasting time series with seasonal patterns.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Whisper: Large-Scale Multilingual Speech Recognition

Aug 10, 2025·6 min read

Whisper applies encoder-decoder transformers to multilingual speech recognition, translation, and language identification across noisy audio conditions.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

Refining AI Agents Using Observability

Aug 10, 2025·14 min read

Use observability for continuous agent improvement. Topics include patterns in logs, turn observations into targeted improvements, track quantitative metrics.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

Exponential Smoothing (ETS)

Aug 8, 2025·61 min read

Covers exponential smoothing for time series forecasting, including simple, double (Holt's), and triple (Holt-Winters) methods.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Flamingo: Few-Shot Vision-Language Learning

Aug 8, 2025·15 min read

Flamingo connects frozen vision and language models through gated cross-attention, supporting few-shot image and video tasks without task-specific fine-tuning.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

Debugging AI Agent Behavior

Aug 8, 2025·13 min read

Read agent logs, trace reasoning chains, identify common problems, and systematically debug AI agents.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

Adding Logs to AI Agents: Observability & Debugging

Aug 6, 2025·10 min read

Add logging to AI agents to debug behavior, track decisions, and monitor tool usage. Includes practical Python examples.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningLanguage AI Handbook

Unigram LLM Tokenization: EM Training

Aug 5, 2025·55 min read

Explains how the unigram LM tokenizer trains via the EM algorithm, uses Viterbi decoding for segmentation, and enables subword regularization.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningMachine Learning from Scratch

Prophet Time Series Forecasting: Trend, Seasonality

Aug 5, 2025·43 min read

Covers Prophet time series forecasting including additive decomposition, trend modeling, seasonal patterns, and holiday effects.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

HELM: Holistic Evaluation of Language Models Framework

Aug 4, 2025·15 min read

Covers HELM (Holistic Evaluation of Language Models), the early evaluation framework.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

Continuous Feedback and Improvement

Aug 4, 2025·17 min read

Create feedback loops that continuously improve your AI agent through real-world usage data, pattern analysis, and targeted improvements.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringLLM and GenAI

Building AI Agents with LangChain and LangGraph: Part 2

Aug 2, 2025·14 min read

Build agentic workflows with LangChain and LangGraph using state graphs, tool routing, persistence, retries, and multi-step control.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningLanguage AI Handbook

The Vocabulary Problem

Aug 2, 2025·48 min read

Explains why traditional word-level approaches fail with diverse text, from OOV words to morphological complexity.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Multi-Vector Retrievers

Aug 2, 2025·16 min read

Covers multi-vector retrieval systems introduced in 2021. Explains how token-level contextualized embeddings enabled fine-grained matching.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningAI Agent Handbook

Testing AI Agents with Examples

Aug 2, 2025·14 min read

Create and use test cases to evaluate AI agent performance. Build broad test suites, track results over time.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningLanguage AI Handbook

WordPiece: BERT's Subword Tokenization Algorithm Explained

Aug 1, 2025·48 min read

Explains how WordPiece differs from BPE by using a likelihood objective for merges. Topics include the PMI score, greedy tokenization, ## prefix notation.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringMachine LearningHistory of Language AI

Chain-of-Thought Prompting

Jul 31, 2025·14 min read

Chain-of-thought prompting elicits intermediate reasoning steps from language models. Covers zero-shot and few-shot methods, benefits, and limits.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningData, Analytics & AISoftware Engineering

Setting Goals and Success Criteria

Jul 31, 2025·12 min read

Define clear, measurable success criteria for AI agents including correctness, reliability, efficiency, safety.

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AI Agent HandbookMachine LearningSoftware Engineering

Benefits and Challenges of Multi-Agent Systems

Jul 29, 2025·24 min read

Examines the trade-offs of multi-agent AI systems, from specialization and parallel processing to coordination challenges and complexity management.

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Data, Analytics & AISoftware EngineeringLLM and GenAI

The Mathematics Behind LLM Fine-Tuning

Jul 28, 2025·13 min read

Covers the mathematical foundations of LLM fine-tuning with clear explanations and minimal prerequisites.

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Community

Learn with the community

Create a free account to keep your reading organized, join thoughtful discussions, and get more from every chapter.

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  • Ask questions and take part in discussions
  • Read with fewer interruptions

Free to join · Takes less than a minute

Why

I created this space so readers can learn together, ask questions, and make sense of difficult ideas.

Michael Brenndoerfer
From readers1 / 12